Geographical Distribution
The mountains between China and Tibet are home to at least 12 unknown ethnically Tibetan people groups.
Between the high Tibetan plateau and the rice fields of the Sichuan basin lies a set of mountain ranges, running from north to south. The elevation generally drops as you travel south. Mountain valleys that start out shallow at the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau become deeper and steeper towards the southeast, with the difference in elevation from mountain top to valley floor becoming quite extreme. Rivers that wind back and forth across the plateau become rushing torrents in the steep narrow valleys. Travel from east to west in this region involves crossing passes that can exceed 4500 meters (over 13,500 ft.), and descending to valleys that go below 2000 meters (over 6,000 ft.). This region shares the same latitude as Egypt, and Southern California.
The valleys can be quite warm and lush in places of low elevation, adequate places for raising crops; the higher pastures are above the tree line, but are suitable for grazing yaks and sheep. These mountain ranges have historically formed a boundary between Tibet and China. This has been a place of interchange and trade in times of peace, and a place of mountain strongholds in times of war.
Linguists and anthropologists call this region the Ethnic corridor of Southwest China. This Ethnic Corridor is home to at least 14 distinct Tibetan people groups, 12 of which are virtually unknown outside of Sichuan.
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Langauge 3 Groupings of Tibetans
1. Linguistically separate yet culturally Tibetan.
Two thirds of Tibetans in this region belong to the relatively well known Kham and Amdo speaking Tibetans. However, fully one third of the Tibetans in this region do not speak Kham or Amdo as a first language. Linguistic research in the 1980's and '90's has shown that these ethnic groups speak separate but related languages. These languages are entirely different from the Tibetan language.
They are classified together as "Qiangic languages" (after a fairly well known member of the group, called Qiang). The native speakers of these languages are most easily referred to as "Qiangic speaking people".
Livelihood Economy
Most Qiangic speaking Tibetans are farmers and/or nomads. Terraced mountainsides and narrow valley floors produce a variety of crops. The mainstay is barley, used for making tsampa. Corn is also grown in abundance. Vegetables, fruit such as apples, and nuts are grown.
Farmers also raise pigs and cows. Typically farmers are able to grow enough to feed their families and a little more that can be traded. Nomads graze yaks, sheep, goats, and perhaps raise horses as well. Most of the farmers and nomads don't earn a cash-income. They exchange goods as needed. Nomads trade wool, butter or cheese for things like barley or vegetables.
Paying for things like school fees or medical fees is a problem for people without a cash income. Leaving the farm and working as a laborer or truck driver can at times earn money. Sometimes people earn cash by collecting wild herbs used in traditional medicine and selling them. Those living near roads have a better opportunity of earning a cash income than those (the majority) who only have mountain trails leading to their farm or pasture land.
Religion and Beliefs Religion
Qiangic speaking Tibetans worship mountain gods and follow Tibetan Buddhism and the pre Buddhist Bon religion. Yearly rituals are performed to gain the protection and favor of the local mountain god. Currently, Buddhism and Bon provide guidance in gaining merit for the next life.
Monasteries are growing, and monks and lamas exert a large influence. Providing funeral rituals is one of the important roles a monk plays in the life of an individual; these rituals guide the soul of the deceased to the next life form. However, monks are called on to deal with a number of problems ranging from sickness to crop failure. Monasteries are centers of Buddhist or Bon study, and provide a strong cultural link for people all around the Tibetan Buddhist world.
Tibetans are in general very devoted to their religion. However, it is possible that Qiangic speaking Tibetans, living at the borders of the Tibetan area, and with years of interaction and influence by the Chinese, are not as deeply devoted to their religion as those from, say, Lhasa.
Mission
In 1908 the Chairmen of the West China Missionary Conference, Joseph Taylor and Bishop Cassels, sent out an appeal from Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province. At that time for Sichuan there was one missionary available for every 200,000 people.
The authors of the appeal conclude,
"These facts speak for themselves, and seem to need no added words from us to enforce the inadequacy of the Church's preparation to meet the need."
Taylor and Cassels then go on to give details about specific needs in the area and appeal for workers. One of the appeals is of specific interest to us as we consider the Tibetan Buddhists of West Sichuan:
"We ask for workers among the Tibetans and several Aboriginal Tribes. Such men should be fitted for a rough life, much traveling and exposure, and often loneliness. They should be men of considerable linguistic gifts, as, besides Chinese, they would have to learn at east one other language. For this work we appeal for 300 workers."
Vision Local needs/ Opportunities for Service >>Individuals who will commit themselves to interceding for these people. >>Linguists and anthropologists are needed to research the languages and cultures of these people groups. Most Qiangic languages at present have no written form. There is much that remains unknown about these people, and more research is needed to "bring them into the light", make them known. >>Churches that would adopt individual townships (made up of approximately 10 villages). Adopting a township means covering the community with prayer, partnering with long term workers, sponsoring projects among the poor, sending short-term teams, etc. (see more below) >>Translators are needed to provide Bibles and materials. >>Evangelists and church planters are needed that will plant indigenous multiplying churches. >>Development workers are needed to help these people move from a barter based economy into a money based economy. >>Business people are needed, workers who will model godly business principles and train up a new
generation of people in the area of business, aiding in the transformation from barter to cash based economy. >>Educational workers, people who can teach things like English or computers, are needed; the best jobs in China often go to those with a good knowledge of English and computers. Students from Qiangic speaking Tibetan groups are often at a disadvantage, living in remote areas, not having the facilities available to city students, and having to study in their second or third language. >>Health Care workers, people that can facilitate basic community health care are needed. Qiangic speaking Tibetans generally have difficulty accessing good health care. Lack of good roads, or in many cases simply a lack of any road, makes travel to healthcare facilities difficult. Lack of finances makes paying for good health care difficult. And ignorance of good health principles at times has a negative impact on community health.
3. Incorporated into Communist China.
Chinese rule began in the early 50's. After the Communists gained control of China, implementing effective Chinese control over (what is now) western Sichuan and Tibet became a high priority of the People's Liberation Army. The area where the Qiangic speaking Tibetans live was not considered to be a part of Tibet.
The battle and surrender of Tibet took place in areas outside of the Qiangic speaking Tibetan areas. In the period immediately after the Chinese took control in Lhasa, the newly established Tibetan Autonomous Region was given special treatment by the Chinese. Control was implemented gradually.
However, because the area where Qiangic speaking Tibetans lived was already considered to be a Chinese province (Sikang, later made part of Sichuan), it was brought under direct control more rapidly. This led to either resistance or acquiescence on the part of the locals. Local Chieftains were either defeated or invited to join the local Communist government.
Many took the latter route, holding various offices in the new Communist administration. However, the rule of local Chieftains was at an end; from this time on Beijing exercised final authority in the area. New roads allowed troops to move quickly from area to area. Although there was sporadic resistance to Chinese rule, it was localized, not region-wide, and not centrally organized.
These periodic uprisings and pockets of local resistance were overcome; government programs such as land reform that were held back in the Tibetan Autonomous Region were implemented quite quickly in the area where the Qiangic speaking Tibetans lived. A new era had begun. Additionally, the difficulties in communication made local leaders more prominent than the leaders in Lhasa, allowing the final say in most decisions to be made by the local Chieftains. The local chieftains held hereditary titles, approved by the Chinese emperor. However, Chinese control was only nominal. Due to local upheavals and religious strife on a national level, the Qing emperor sent armies into the area for a period of 20 years, which ended in the early 1700’s. He conquered local leaders and then demanded their loyalty.
However, Qing control lapsed, because local officials gave lip service to Chinese rule while in fact governing themselves. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, Chiang Kai Shek's Guomindang made the area a technically separate province, the province of Sikang. However, Guomindang control was never effectively implemented, as the Guomindang were distracted by their war with the Japanese and the Communists. A telling point was that Chinese currency was not accepted in the region.
The Red Army under Mao traveled through the area in the thirties on the Long March, traveling from south to north in their long retreat from the Guomindang. They fled through this region of steep mountain valleys precisely because it was an area not directly under Guomindang control. In order to gain passage the Long March soldiers were forced to either seek permission from local Chieftains or overcome local resistance. Except the Baima, all of these ethnic groups are Tibetan Buddhists. The prevailing theory is that the Qiangic speaking Tibetans are the oldest inhabitants of the land, squeezed in between - and regularly overrun by - the Tibetans to the west and the Chinese to the east.
Over time many of these groups adopted Tibetan Buddhism as their religion, and much of Tibetan culture as their own. For these reasons, the Chinese government groups all of these peoples together with the Tibetans to form one big nationality, called the "Tibetan Nationality".
Therefore, most Qiangic speaking people-groups do not show up separately in government statistics, and have no separate voice in political representation. They also do not have the right to develop their own languages, or educate their children in their own language. For many years, foreign visitors were restricted from traveling to the areas these people inhabit.
Even though foreigners are now allowed to travel in these areas, the roads, lodging, and communication capabilities are still very poor. Because of this lack of development, as well as political sensitivity and strict security rules, it remains difficult to find reliable information about these peoples.
2. Culturally Tibetan yet independent from Lhasa
The peoples of this area have endured a tumultuous past, with control of the area passing through the hands of Tibetans, Chinese and even into their own for a time. During the first half of the 20th century, Qiangic groups had almost complete control over their own affairs.
Tibet exerted a limited influence through a system of monasteries, which had connections with the government in Lhasa. However, the great distance between Lhasa and the Qiangic Speaking Tibetans has resulted in some great differences of beliefs. Many of the Qiangic speaking Tibetans believe in the Black sect (Bon) of Tibetan Buddhism, which has some practices that are quite different from the beliefs in Lhasa.Mountain schools have had difficulty attracting quality teachers, and this also puts students at a disadvantage. For the wealthy few, sending children away to school in larger Chinese cities is an option. Here the quality of education is better, and the children have a better chance of passing the university entrance exams.
However, it also means that the child is less influenced by home, and tends to become culturally Chinese, and no longer Tibetan. Representatives of almost every Qiangic speaking Tibetan group attend the Chengdu High School for Ethnic Minorities, and the South-West Minorities College also in Chengdu.
Health Care
County seats have hospitals, doctors, and medical supplies. However, people without a cash income have difficulty paying for medical treatment. Travel is difficult, and people with a low level of education may not be aware of the health risks in, say, going directly back to farm work after giving birth. Ignorance and lack of money keep the majority of Qiangic speaking Tibetans from accessing good medical care.Even those that have a chance to earn a cash-income have great difficulty coming up with enough money to put a child all the way through high school. The number of students that make it all the way through university is exceptionally small. People that have medical conditions face difficult choices, and often forego treatment for lack of money. The area is rich in minerals such as gold.
Logging was once a mainstay of the economy but it has been banned, as deforestation has caused too much soil erosion. This erosion contributes to the many landslides that will be encountered along the roads.
Education
In the past, the monastery was the place where boys received an education. Under the communists’ basic education system, both boys and girls are legally required to attend 9 years of education. However, many do not reach even this level of education. Education is expensive and culturally unattractive to many Tibetan families. The language needed for getting a good education (and later a job) is Chinese.
The language that best preserves the cultural and religious heritage is Tibetan (there is no Qiangic language education available). Qiangic Tibetan families must make a choice - either the child learns Tibetan, and preserves cultural heritage, or learns Chinese, and has the chance of getting a paying job and leaving the farm. Neither Tibetan nor Chinese are the child's first language, and the child will be at a disadvantage in school because of this.Today, almost one hundred years after this appeal went out, there are approximately ten percent of the workers that Taylor and Cassels asked for.
Two large prefectures administer the western half of Sichuan Province. There is the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture in the north and the Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture to the west. Aba Prefecture has, according to statistics from 1999, 424,290 inhabitants, which are registered as members of the Tibetan nationality. In Ganzi Prefecture there are, by a count of 1990, 627,034 people belonging to the Tibetan nationality.
Linguistically speaking, the Tibetan nationality can be split up in people who speak some form of Tibetan (Amdo or Kham) and those who speak one of the Qiangic languages.
Of the 1,041,324 people in Ganzi and Aba Prefectures that belong to the Tibetan nationality, 311,700 do not have Tibetan (or Chinese for that matter) as their first language. That is fully one third of the Tibetan population of these areas.
